G5a :j^ -v^ BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF 1S91 Cornell University Library TH 7703.G58 The lighting booic; a manual for the iayma 3 1924 015 352 200 DATE DUE m^ tW?" m> PRINTED INU S.A. Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924015352200 THE LIGHTING BOOK Light may be used for decorative, as well as utility, purposes. Here both are combined. If too bright lights are placed within such decorative candle shades as these, the pictorial efifect is destroyed and they become annoying. THE LIGHTING BOOK A MANUAL FOR THE LAYMAN SETTING FORTH THE PRACTI- CAL AND ESTHETIC SIDES OF GOOD LIGHTING FOR THE HOME BY F. LAURENT GODINEZ 1 f r .■ It NEW YORK McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY ^9^3 Copyright, 1913, by McBride, Nast & Co. 1^.3 58871 Published November, 1913 CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE Light and the Eye i CHAPTER n The Misuse of Light 8 CHAPTER HI Light and the Mind-Psychology 23 CHAPTER IV The Modification of Light 32 CHAPTER V Seeing by Light Transmitted 41 CHAPTER VI Shading and Redirecting Light 47 CHAPTER VII Light on the Path 56 CHAPTER VIII Making the Most of Light 64 CHAPTER IX Indirect Lighting 70 CHAPTER X Individuality in Lighting 77 CHAPTER XI Light in the Home 87 CHAPTER XII Light ajstd Decoration 98 THE ILLUSTRATIONS Light used for decorative as well as utility purposes Frontispiece PACING PASS Photographs showing effect of tungsten lamp with and without globe 4 Booths arranged to show the comparative effect of various illuminants and their globes 5 Too much light 14 Fixture of ground glass as it appears in daylight . . .15 The same glassware when lighted 15 Inverted mantle 22 Tungsten lamps used in proper position 22 An inclosing globe of decorative opal 23 Comparison booths showing the action of shades which do not entirely inclose lamps 32 The various types of inclosing shades contrasted ... 32 Old iron fixtures of German Gothic design . . . .33 Portable lamp for reading 40 Showing the eyebrow's function in protecting the eye . . 40 Results of gas and electricity in relation to their fixtures contrasted 41 White tablecloth a reflector for light from an overhead dome 46 Comparison of various reflectors with tungsten lamps of the same size 47 Comparison of their reflecting surfaces with tungsten and Welsbach lamps 47 A lattice skylight of diffusing glass panels 52 THE ILLUSTRATIONS TAOINa FAGS Veranda lighted with the usual porch lantern .... 53 The same veranda with indirect lighting equipment . . 53 Dining-room with original and artistic lighting . . . 6o Examples of the best types of modern glassware . . .61 Corner of a room where indirect equipment is used . . 66 Appropriate fixture spoiled by ground glass .... 67 Small hall well lighted 67 A good example of a table portable ^2 Indirect lighting with luminous bowl 73 Indirect lighting with a portable lamp 78 Modern fixtures adaptable for gas 79 Effect of sidelights unproperly equipped 84 Suitability of indirect lighting for bedrooms .... 85 General lighting insufficient for local requirements . . go How to improve kitchen lighting 91 Artistic lighting in conjunction with articles of decoration 96 Another example of light used to emphasize the details of decoration - • 97 Lighting which enhances plaster relief work .... 97 Lighting which brings out a painting 102 Ingenious treatment of a narrow hall 103 THE LIGHTING BOOK LIGHT AND THE EYE "Oh loss of sight of thee I most complain." THE human eye must not be regarded as a mere optical device, but as a vital anatomical organ, which is really an extended portion of the brain, affecting in many serious ways every other organ of the body. Artificial light, as it is used to-day, is more than a serious menace to the eyesight of our nation. In- deed the lighting of our public places and most of our homes is dangerous to health in that its effect upon the eyes is ruinous. The eye has often been compared with the photo- graphic camera in order to show light is trans- formed by optical magic into brain pictures. This analogy is appropriate — ^with certain limita- tions, that may best be defined by simple analysis. The cap or shutter of the camera admits or ex- cludes light entirely; the eyelid does not. It is so translucent that sleep is not always possible in brightly lighted rooms. 2 THE LIGHTING BOOK The diaphragm of the camera admits more or less light to the sensitized plate. The iris, or colored portion of the eye, automatically decreases or increases its aperture or dark spot called the pupil. It is nature's automatic protective mechanism. On looking at a bright light or bright surface the pupil contracts, excluding, to a certain degree, excess light. On regarding a darker surface or space the pupilary aperture in- creases to admit the necessary light for perception. This contraction and expansion of the pupil is not instantaneous — unfortunately. Thus from the sudden explosion of a flashlight, the pupil does not close quickly enough to protect the eye, which is evident by the attendant sensation of benumbed discomfort. All of our physical sensations are purely relative, and vision — which is a physical sensation produced by light rays received by the retina, and transferred by the brain cells into pictures — is no exception to the rule. On entering a brightly lighted room, after having been for some time in a comparatively dark space, the brightness is exaggerated. Con- versely, upon returning to the dark space, it ap- pears absolutely black until the mechanism of the eye slowly adjusts itself to normal perception. What exactly transpires, when the iris contracts LIGHT AND THE EYE 3 and expands, changing the size of the pupil, is not exactly determined. It is certain, however, that to subject the eyes to such brightness as to cause prolonged contraction is most disagreeable, and brings attendant dangerous after-effects, par- ticularly when the physical exertion caused by such abuse, is an added burden to an overwrought or ill-nourished system. This is the case of thou- sands of unfortunates suffering from unphysiologic lighting. Thus the over-brightly lighted reading page, perused after eating, adds to the continued activity of the digestive organ an extra burden, accounting doubtless for the peculiar sociability of those worthy benedicks who fall asleep over their read- ing page after dinner. Similarly, those who wander from the subdued lighting of their own fireside to the brilliant glare of the modern drawing-room, or the over-bright screen of the lecture platform or moving-picture show, find an inexplicable feeling of drowsiness stealing over them, due entirely to continued pupilary contraction and its associated exhaus- tion. To revert to our analogy, the lens of the camera refracts or bends rays of light (reflected from an object into the lens) so that a sharp, minute in- 4 THE LIGHTING BOOK verted image of the object is formed on the ground glass observation screen. The sharpness or clearness of the image is ob^ tained by "focusing," or regulating the distance between the lens and the plate until, a distinct image results. This operation is automatically performed in the eye by the action of the ciliary muscle, which changes the shape of the double- convex crystalline lens, thereby "focusing" light rays by refraction so that they converge on the retina or sensitive inner posterior surface of the eye, which in turn conveys the sensation of vision to the brain by the action of innumerable minute rods and cones, and the optic nerve. Only in the perfectly normal eye do the rays of light converge properly on the retina. If the eye- ball is not perfectly spherical, then astigmatism, near or far sightedness (Myopia or Hyperopia) exists and glasses must be worn to assist the lens of the eye in properly refracting light. Too great care cannot be exercised in the use of glasses. Be- cause a pair of glasses gives very distinct vision is no reason why glasses should be worn. Always consult a reputable oculist or ophthalmologist — the term optician is often used by the jeweler who strives to increase his profits by posing as one qualified to correct eyesight. LIGHT AND THE EYE 5 Glasses selected promiscuously, even though giving most distinct vision, often relieve the ciliary muscles of exercise to which they have become ac- customed for years in changing the curvature and regulating the accommodation of the crystalline lens. This sudden inactivity often results in catar- act or hardening of the lens of the eye until it be- comes white and opaque, causing blindness. The eye is, with the exception of the heart, the most active organ of the human body. Not only are the twelve extra ocular muscles of the eye em- ployed for the purpose of turning the eyeball in its socket, incessantly active, but the ciliary muscle is also continually active in readjusting the crystal- line lens for distance accommodation. It loses greatly in efficiency at the average age of forty-five. Astigmatism is very prevalent. Unquestiona- bly at least 60 per cent, of functional headaches are due to this cause. The correction lies in proper glasses, which will correct — not cure — the evil. Many a child has been characterized as stupid or backward, whose misshapen eyeballs were alone responsible. Astigmatism, like every other human affliction, is not without a touch of the grotesque. Sufferers from any form of it do not see vertical and hori- zontal lines with equal clearness. Thus to one 6 THE LIGHTING BOOK troubled with "astigmatism in the vertical me- ridian," the vertical lines of a building are indis- tinct or blurred, while with "astigmatism in the horizontal meridian," the effect is reversed, and the blurring of the horizontal lines gives an exag- gerated appearance of height to a structure, which, conversely, with astigmatism in the vertical me- ridian, would appear foreshortened. Many suf- ferers from astigmatism assert positively that they can "see better" at certain hours of the day. The explanation of this delusion is that the hands of the clock when vertical and together — at twelve or 6:30 — appear more distinct to a person astig- matic in the horizontal meridian, than when they are in the horizontal position of 9:45 or 3:15. The photographic plate is not very sensitive to yellow light, unless specially prepared, whereas the eye is more sensitive to yellow than any other color. On the other hand, the camera plate is particularly sensitive to blue and violet, which in the ultra-violet range of the spectrum are not per- ceived by the eye. The camera plate has often revealed facial eruptions long before there was any visible evidence of the disease. But unless ortho- chromatic plates are used, the camera will not re- produce objects red in color, and is but slightly sensitive to yellow. LIGHT AND THE EYE 7 These phenomena will be of assistance in the consideration of the practical problems of light- ing which we will take up later in that they ex- emplify important principles often neglected both by those who have to do with the lighting of public places and those who are responsible for the light- ing of the home. ir THE MISUSE OF LIGHT "Light seeking light doth light of light beguile." LIGHT, like life, is as we make it. It may be a thing of parts, a source of comfort, an in- spiring influence, an element of the beautiful, or, it may be as it is to-day just a part of things — in the utilitarian sense a "servant in the house" — nothing more. There is no other product of modern civilization that exercises so great an influence for good or evil. Nerves may be shattered by its violent use, de- spondency and melancholia brightened by its subtle influence. Eye strain and chronic head- ache will result from its misuse. Eye comfort and health are the rewards of its intelligent apprecia- tion. Taken as it is to-day in allopathic doses — as an antidote for darkness — it is over-stimulating and dangerous. Assimilated intelligently in visually palatable homeopathic form, it is a wonderful tonic, almost an elixir — but as commercially pre- THE MISUSE OF LIGHT 9 scribed by the incompetent, it is pitifully inade- quate, and a deadly menace to the eyesight of our nation. It is but necessary to revert momentarily to cause and effect to perceive the raison d'etre of this unfortunate condition. In the wholesale manufacture and distribution of artificial light, we are confronted with the in- evitabla triangle of human forces, slightly modi- fied from the conventional triangle of the drama, but a triangle, nevertheless, in the functional sense. In this instance the triumvirate consists of: the manufacturer of energy in luminous form from coal — popularly known as "that gas or electric light company" — operating by franchise as a pub- lic service corporation; the manufacturer of energy-transforming devices — lamps which con- vert gas or electricity (energy) into the visible luminous form of light, and their accessories — lighting glassware and fixtures; and the public, which is theoretically presumed to enjoy, thrive, and prosper by the combination of the first and second forces named. The word combination, as implied above, must not be interpreted to mean co-operation — at least not on the part of the illuminant, fixture, or glass- ware manufacturer — since these elements have been IP THE LIGHTING BOOK directly responsible for the many unjust and un- merited criticisms of lighting companies by the public. Modern electric illuminants of such dazzling brightness as positively to menace our eyesight, have been widely advertised by their manufacturers without the slightest reference to the dangers attending their misuse, or the least sug- gestion as to necessary modifications. Affiliated glassware manufacturers have unloaded upon the public a product whose sole attribute has been its property of redirecting light rays. The question of appearance has been entirely disregarded, and, as a result, we are surfeited with lighting which is utterly devoid of attraction, without character, commonplace and injurious. Thus, this misdirected commercialism on the part of the tungsten lamp, glassware, and lighting fixture manufacturers is directly responsible for the critical and unsatisfactory status of artificial lighting of to-day. While the contractor, and architect's assistant (responsible for detail) are directly blamed for the perfunctory spirit in which they have placed im- possible lighting equipment in the home, it must be admitted that they have been utterly dependent upon these makers of lighting glassware and fix- tures for working data, which has been quantitive THE MISUSE OF LIGHT li but inadequate in fulfilling the esthetic and physi- ologic requirements. In this regard the manufacturer of illuminants has erred, perhaps as a victim of circumstances, in heeding the unsound advice of affiliated lighting- glassware manufacturers, who have limited their analysis of lighting to extremely narrow, technical considerations, ignorantly inspired by commercial avidity. An eminent authority on interior decoration states: "The technical man, or engineer, has nar- rowed his perspective by an exclusive considera- tion of economic and utilitarian, rather than esthetic, considerations. He has knowledge of lamps and their construction, but smiles indul- gently and with smug complacency at the mere idea of estheticism in lighting." He has no appreciation for environment, knows naught of that consistent relationship between light and color which is the essence of decoration — or atmosphere. Such individuals are responsible for the great unrealized possibilities of artificial light, and their egotism and sublime ignorance of all which represents education in the broadest sense, has prohibited co-operation with those most emi- nently qualified by nature and experience to help the cause — the decorator and architect. 12 THE LIGHTING BOOK These criticisms do not apply to the illuminant manufacturer in the sense of belittling his economi- cal achievement in illuminant improvement, for in the tungsten or "Mazda" lamp of to-day, evolved by ceaseless experiments from Mr. Edison's first electric lamp of over thirty years ago we have a luminous medium of singular flexibility and economy. Similarly the pioneer work of Dr. Carl Auer Von Welsbach has given to the world an incan- descent gas mantle, at least equaling the tungsten lamp in quantity and quality of light. This question of quantity and quality of modern light sources is of grave import. Because he has succeeded in creating an illuminant which ap- proximates daylight, and assists industrial occupa- tions where the matching of color fabrics under artificial light is desirable, the illuminant manu- facturer is laboring under the delusion that his tungsten or "Mazda" lamp, with its white light is an universal panacea for all lighting ills, and, from his rather profuse publicity, we are asked to believe that "all these economies make more light, better light, the light universal." From this we may gather that only the indus- trial, utilitarian and commercial-economic aspects have received recognition, yet nature provides rest- THE MISUSE OF LIGHT 13 fulness which comes with sundown. In the light- ing of the home, the glare of continual day per- petuated at night by glaring artificial illuminants is unnatural — diametrically opposed to nature's teachings — entirely lacking in that element of re- pose which in lighting should delicately empha- size the quiet and peace of eventide in the home. Let us first consider the physiological aspect of artificial light, and determine briefly just what con- stitutes hygienic lighting. Dr. George M. Gould, whose knowledge no physiologist or opthalmologist dares dispute, in Volume I, of his "Biographi-Clinics" in the chap- ter on the Physiology of Vision, forcibly denounces the prevailing use of high brilliancy illuminants, as follows : "Another corollary of the law of ocular tire and resensitization may be noticed in passing — a law that is outraged by the lighting of most of our churches and of all of our private houses, theaters, and public halls. The millions of dollars spent each year in illumination are in great part wasted and misspent, and by the methods used all the harm is done to the eye that is possible. No room should be lit in such a way that the individual lights are visible. Illumination should be by transmitted, dissipated, and reflected light." 14 THE LIGHTING BOOK No matter how beautiful an interior may be, or how harmonious its decorative ensemble, if glaring light sources blind the eyesight, all sense of com- fort or repose is lacking, and pictorial value is de- stroyed. Often one is conscious of a feeling of disquietude or unrest, even in esthetic environ- ment. This is due to the offensive white light and overbrilliancy of modern illuminants. A noted opthalmologist writes : "American oculists have so many patients who even with the best spectacles, cannot escape suffer- ing whenever they go to the theatre, opera, etc., that the term 'theatre-headache' or 'panorama- headache' has come into general use. As much as to the character of the sermon or of the worshipper, the famous sleepiness of the churchgoer was due to the somnolence caused by ocular fatigue from harsh lights in front. One of the most common symptoms of eyestrain known to all oculists is sleepiness when reading by artificial light. Part of this is certainly due to the unphysiologic systems and qualities of the light used." One of the necessary requisites for ocular com- fort is that the brilliancy of a light source, in the visual field, should be restricted within certain limits. Physiologists agree that light sources hav- ing a specific brightness of from 4. to 5. candle- There is too much light here and it is wrongly placed. The lights hang too low and destroy all possible artistic expres- sion of the picture. The lights against the wall are a source of glare. THE MISUSE OF LIGHT ij power per square inch, down to 0.2 to o.i candle- power per square inch as a minimum, are safe working standards for the eye. While no absolute rule can be laid down, owing to individually dif- ferent requirements, there is one positive method of determining whether or not the source of light is dangerously bright. If it can be regarded fixedly without ocular discomfort, squinting or annoyapce, it is not too brilliant from the physi- ological viewpoint. Whether it is a source of pleasure, attraction or of delight to the eye, is a psychological, esthetic problem which we will dis- cuss later. Since the days of the candle the source-bright- ness of our illuminants has steadily increased. It has passed the danger mark, but the saturation point is not yet in sight. If values of from o. i to 5. candlepower per square inch constitute visually the safe range of source-brightness, glance at the following tabulation, and cease to marvel at the optician's prosperity. (Intrinsic Brilliancy) Source of Light Candlepower per square inch. Candle :..... ". 3- 4 Oil lamp 3- g Gas flame _ , 3- 8 Carbon filament electric lamp 375- 400 Welsbach gas maiitle .' .... 20- 50 Tungsten lamp 1,000-1,500 i6 THE LIGHTING BOOK From an inspection of the foregoing it is ap- parent that each successive development of elec- trical illuminants has been attended with an amaz- ing increase in source-brightness, and that where a value of 5. candlepower per square inch is consid- ered the maximum limit of safety, we have ex- ceeded that limit TWO HUNDRED TIMES/ Do not confuse this "candlepower of source- brightness" or "intrinsic brilliancy" with the useful light, or "rated" candlepower of the illuminant itself, since the first is purely a measure of source- brilliancy expressed comparatively in terms of candlepower per square inch having nothing to do with the useful light. It is merely for compara- tive purposes that the reference is here used. Of course, in many instances, unfortunately not the majority, the eye is protected from, the dan- gerous brilliancy of the tungsten lamp by some sort of glassware in the form of shades which should serve the double function of eye protection, and the re-distribution of light over areas where it is re- quired. The fact remains unaltered, however, that the lamp manufacturer in his publicity has in no way indicated the necessity for utilizing his product with care, and his undue emphasis on its economy and durability has persuaded its adoption in count- THE MISUSE OF LIGHT 17 less instances where it has been ignorantly sub- stituted for older types of less brilliant illuminants, and located directly within the visual field. A word of warning on each cardboard box in which tungsten lamps are sold would have a far reaching effect Another word as to the necessity for keeping lamps free from dirt would be equally appropriate but their humanitarian and utilitarian considerations have been stubbornly ignored by the manufacturer. Dr. Ellice Alger, a noted opthal- mologist, states: "The general engineering expression seems to be that the room which is best lighted is most lighted. This is a great mistake. Too intense light decomposes the visual purple in the retina faster than it can be replaced, and leaves a condi- tion of retinal exhaustion. Likewise it compels a constant extreme muscular contraction of the pupil in the effort to exclude the light, which is both fatiguing and painful. Most of our build- ings are glaring examples of extravagant and visual inefficient lighting — extravagant because of the waste of light, and inefficient because they are not even comfortable to sit in." Regarding the substitution of older types of less glaring illuminants for those of highest intrinsic brilliancy, for attainment of their unduly adver- i8 THE LIGHTING BOOK tised feature — "economy" (in abstract), Dr. Alger adds: "Among the East Side operatives, thousands and thousands of unfortunate men and women spend their lives in making the fractional part of coat, shirt-waist, artificial flowers, and willow plumes, working in close, badly ventilated, badly lighted rooms. Presently the daily headache begins, and a little later their mistakes in the work impose a series of fines. The combination of physical misery and low wages imposed by bad eyes un- doubtedly predisposes the men to alcoholism, dis- honesty and crime, and makes a life of prostitu- tion seem easy and attractive to the girls." Whether in the home, the ofRce or the factory, the pernicious, devastating effect of these over-bril- liant unmodified light sources is the growing cause of much untold misery and suffering, generally at- tributed to other innocent causes. The human eye is but an extended portion of the brain, according to the most eminent anato- mists, and as such must be treated not merely as an optical adjunct, but as a vital organ, affecting in some serious manner every other organ through abuse, by light or any other cause. Thus, the glaring, unprotected light source, whether it be the tungsten lamp of the subway THE MISUSE OF LIGHT 19 train, or the unshaded light of the home, is the unsuspected cause of many an acute headache, which with continued exposure will become chronic. Indigestion and nervous despondency have been traced to this cause. The commercial lighting "engineer" or lamp and reflector salesman may sniflf contemptuously at this, but the ophthal- mologist will nod gravely in acquiescence. Eye- glasses will correct — not cure — astigmatism due to misshapen eyeballs, but they cannot protect the eye from blinding injurious light sources, or glaring prism shades. The physiological significance of color, or quality of light in the home, brings us to the read- ing page. A great deal of humanity's ocular dis- comfort has come from endeavoring to decipher small black characters against a white page. In the days of earlier illuminants the page was, perhaps, .insufficiently lighted, and eyesight was impaired through strained perception. Then came the oil lanip with its soft mellow radiance, which has yet many admirers in the student world. We "see" the small print on our reading page by xontrast — the contrast of the black type against the white background — but the total area occupied by the blank white paper is far greater than the total area occupied by the black type. In other words. 20 THE LIGHTING BOOK the white paper area, which serves to reflect light (if glazed) or diffuse light (if rough) from a lamp into the eye, reflects or diffuses more than is necessary to perceive the small black printed matter by contrast. With earlier forms of electric illuminants the white page was modified and softened by the amber color of the light source itself, and against this soft, mellow background the contrast of the small black characters was less ab- rupt, more readily perceptible, and less tiring. With the tungsten or "Mazda" lamp, the reading page is glaring white, reflecting so much light into the eye that comfortable perception in continued reading is impossible. Assuredly we desire to enjoy the economic ad- vantages of modern illuminants, but by all means let us temper this economy with respect to our eye- sight. With the same required quantity of amber and white light on two reading pages, any person will be able to read longer and with much greater comfort with the amber light. This is an absolute statement of fact and will be contested only by those who fear the effect of such knowledge in directing the public mind along lines of investigation, resulting in legal measures regu- lating the publicity and sale of illuminants. Since the illuminant manufacturer and his sales- THE MISUSE OF LIGHT 21 man the "illuminating engineer," will not recog- nize the obvious physiological requirements of artificial light, let every person interested in con- servation of vision and the avoidance of eye strain prescribe his own remedy — for the procedure is simplicity personified. Granting that the requirements of the individual differ, then let the individual recognize his re- quirements. There is, to-day, a material termed "gelatine film" which is manufactured in sheets about two feet square. It is a thin, transparent medium em- ployed in the theater for the protection of colored lights and the attainment of realism in scenic ef- fects. It is available in many colors, including amber, and is fire resisting. It may be cylin- drically shaped to conform with the various sizes of modern light sources, and held in place by ordi- nary paper clips, such as are used in attaching office correspondence. It may be obtained from the electrician of any theater for a few cents. Just one experiment will convincingly demon- strate its ability to transform harsh, white light into the soft, agreeable soothing radiance of the oil lamp. Hundreds of letters have been received from those who found. a wonderful relief by thus modify- 22 THE LIGHTING BOOK ing the white, glaring light of the tungsten or "Mazda" lamp. While a fluid preparation, known as "lamp col- oring" has been available for staining lamp bulbs, its application has been limited to exterior sign ef- fects. Moreover, it is impossible' to obtain per- manency of color or variation of color density with its use, and the operation of "dipping" lamps in coloring solutions is fraught with many uncer- tainties. The standard makers of incandescent gas mantles, recognizing sometime ago that a white light mantle was unsuited for home lighting, de- vised what is termed an "amber light mantle," which is most pleasing and restful to the eye. Un- fortunately, the manufacturers of tungsten lights have ignored this matter. Too much emphasis canot be laid on this ques- tion of light modification. Great physical dis- comfort has resulted from the substitution of high intrinsic brilliancy of light sources for older types of illuminants to which their visual functions had become accommodated. Overstimulation of the retina decomposes the visual purple much more rapidly than it can be restored, and the result is retinal exhaustion followed by its attendant de- pression of other organic functions. An inclosing globe of decorative opal' used for hall lighting ■with gas, since much light is not required. Ill LIGHT AND THE MIND-PSYCHOLOGY "There's nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so." SIDE from physiological considerations there A* are other reasons why too much light is un- desirable in the home, and these involve psychol- ogy. Subconsciously and unconsciously we ex- perience many sensations which are directly due to psychological precedent. Unexpected contact with a subtle perfume, a certain quaver in a musi- cal theme, and instantly our mind reverts to some incident or personality of long ago, revivifying the past with startling realism. Through the inter- minable space of centuries humanity has been trained through hereditary psychological prece- dent to regard light as a symbol of warmth, com- fort and repose. For ages the comfort of the open fire has impressed on the subconscious mind the invariable association of that physical comfort and sense of warmth with the amber coloring of the dancing flames. Recall the pictorial beauty of the setting sun, transfiguring everything with its 23 24 THE LIGHTING BOOK golden radiance and know why nature's teaching has endeared to humanity that soft mellow amber quality of light which imbues even the environ- ment of the home with an atmosphere rich in tone, feeling and expression. No woman can appear to advantage beneath the cold, harsh, white light of modern illuminants which cruelly reveal every wrinkle and emphasize every facial blemish. Even the bloom of youth pales under the brutal glare of the tungsten lamp. The photographs facing page 4 show this. Try the experiment yourself. Holding a mirror be- fore the face, illuminated by a bare tungsten lamp, observe the uncomplimentary effect. Then place a piece of amber film, amber tissue paper, or an amber globe over the lamp and note the trans- formation. Wrinkles and facial blemishes fade away like magic. In interiors lighted with a prevalence of amber light all is soft and reposeful and each and every one looks her best. Schopenhauer and Herbert Spencer devoted most exhaustive research to determine the effect of music on the nerves ; yet the influence of color, par- ticularly on the overwrought nervous system, is even more definitely marked. The great student of chromotherapy, Van Bliervliet, maintains that those senses which are most sensitive to color ap- THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LIGHT 25 preciation, directly stimulate intellectuality, indi- cating that those individuals possessing superior intelligence are particularly susceptible to the sug- gestion of color or music. Nervous prostration, lack of literary inspiration, and insomnia may be relieved, restored, and cured by the proper treatment of light and color. To-day the lighting of the office is harsh, white and cold. Why let the light of the home suggest to the mind of the tired business man working con- ditions? This subject of psychology is irrevocably linked with artificial light, particularly in the home — which is the theatre of life. Once a dramatist, more daring than his fellows, staged a play. It dealt with the psychology of light. The critics read the manuscript and predicted failure. As usual the public decided. It was a wonderful suc- cess. Night after night thousands sat spellbound under the psychological influence of light. The following abstract from one of the scenes will interest all in whom the sense of imagination and power to appreciate logic still holds sway. Vavin, a scientist, is discovered with Halcomb and Dora — the lovers of the play. Before leaving them alone in the moonlight, he administers gra- tuitously a psychological benediction: 26 THE LIGHTING BOOK Vavin — Do you know the effect of color? Halcomb — Color ? Vavin — ^You have heard of Nancy — in France — the town? Halcomb — ^Yes. Vavin — And Dr. Charcot? Halcomb — ^Yes. Vavin — He was my friend. We made together many experi- ments of the effect of color upon many persons under hypnotic influence. Invariably under yellow, or amber, the subject laughs; under green he is content; under red he is stimulated; if it is brown he is in fear; if violet he weeps; under blue he is — ^what you call it — distrmt? Dora — Perplexed ? Vavin — Perplexed ! Halcomb — Don't you think, Monsieur, so much attention to the light is a bit theatrical? Vavin — ^Theatrical ? Halcomb — Not true to life. Vavin — Life? Do you know. Monsieur, that sixty per cent, of the causes of falling in love are in the moonlight — in life? — Do you know the harvest moon? Halcomb — ^You mean the full moon that comes at harvest time? Vavin (nodding) — Do you know its peculiarity? Generally the full moon rises nearly an hour later each night. Halcomb— W^Wi Vavin — The harvest moon at the full comes up three nights al- most at the same time. Did you ever think of that? — and why is it, do you suppose? Halcomb — ^Why ? Vavin — That harvesters, men and women, shall fall in love with each other! Oh, it is a droll God, Monsieur, that plays that trick for one hour on His children. Think of it. Monsieur, a harvest moon for one hour! Is that of the theatre? No; it is a droll God. Ntow, I cannot show you ; I have no arrangement to get the blue light, which is mystery, and the green light, which is content, and which THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LIGHT 27 together make a moonlight — when two people come to- gether, mystified and happy, and say "Ah, this is Fate — we were for each other since the beginning." Do not laugh, gentle reader, for it is tragedy — not comedy. Here in our midst, at our very door, yes, even within our home is a marvelous omni- potent agent, willing to aid us, yet fettered by man's stupidity and the unyielding shackles of a sordid, misdirected commercialism. And so it is that the color of an interior, as manifested in its wall tints, influences to an un- realized extent the minds of those who dwell therein — through the medium of reflected light and the eye. Just as misshapen eyeballs produce astigmatism, or indistinct vision, so the retina of the eye varies as to color perception. To the lighting engineer color in decoration is of interest only because of its light absorbing or reflecting qualities. "Dark colors with black as a limit, absorb more, and reflect less light than lighter colors, approaching white as an extreme." But this sordid economic dogma of the lighting engineer represents the least important phase of the subject. The color and influence of this re- flected light from colored surfaces on human be- ings is infinitely of greater import. 28 THE LIGHTING BOOK About one out of every seventeen males is color blind, and at least one out of every twelve color ignorant. The color of an object depends on its absorption of certain light rays and its reflection or diffusion of others. If light rays are absorbed or reflected by a surface, the surface is colored and opaque. If some light is transmitted through the surface it is colored but transparent. Surfaces which transmit or reflect all colors are white, while those which transmit or reflect no color are black. The innumerable tints in natures vast color equipment are due to the greater or less reflection or transmission of certain light rays. Plants, trees and flowers really have no color of their own, the impression on the retina being merely a case of cause and efifect, resulting in our attributing colors to natural objects which are not existent, being simply the result of changes in the cerebral cor- tex. To the man who wears dark green glasses all apparent red objects appear black since all the red rays reflected from them are absorbed by the green glasses. In the same way the blue green light of the mercury tube commonly seen in most photographer's windows, causes all apparent red THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LIGHT 29 objects to appear black to the eye, since the red surface can only reflect, or transmit red rays, ab- sorbing the blue and green. Hence the ghastly ap- pearance of those who appear beneath such lights since every vestige of color (red) in the features is obliterated, giving place to dark shadows. The cheek with the bloom of youth becomes sunken, and ruby lips turn black. Conversely red or pink lights are an aid to beauty. Globes of old rose tints over oflfending white lights counterfeit natural . complexion tints to a miraculous degree. To the color blind, and their name is legion, black appears sometimes green, sometimes crim- son, light blue appearing as dark blue, crimson or black, while green is confused with black or brown, and crimson with blue. They see no dif- ference between a laurel leaf and a stick of red sealing-wax, and of all the glorious tints of the rainbow they see but the red and blue. An amus- ing anecdote is related of a Quaker who was color blind and attended a Quaker meeting clad in con- ventional drab clothes, but with brilliant red stock- ings! The apparent changes which light rays cause when reflected from various colored surfaces is naturally of interest and not alone from a psycho- logical viewpoint, since decoration is naught but a 30 THE LIGHTING BOOK consistent relationship betwixt light and color at its best. The modifications which black designs undergo on various colored backgrounds are in many in- stances startling, and these are a few which may be easily verified by any one gifted with normal vision. Color of Back- ground Color Change in Black Design Color of Back- ground Color Change in Black Design Red Dark Green Bluish Black Black Green Blue Reddish Gray Orange-Gray Greenish Yellow- Gray Orange Yellow Violet The modifications produced by colored lights on colored fabrics is even more marked, showing how really necessary it is to consider light as a part of decoration, in preconceived decorative schemes. Color of Ray Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange Initial Appearance of Fabric Black White Red Orange Yellow Deep Green Light Blue Violet Black White Orange Red Yellow Light Green Deep Green Deep Greeji Change in Appearance of Fabric Purple-Black Red Redder Redder Orange Red-Black Violet Purple Maroon or Carmelite Brown Orange More Vivid Scarlet Yellow-Orange Yellow-Green Rusty Green Yellow-Green THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LIGHT 31 Color of Ray Initial Appearance of Fabric Change in Appearance of Fabric Orange-Gray Gray-Slightly Orange-Gray Orangp^Marnnn--. Orange Deeo Blue OranRfr ,-. Ipdiffo Blue "DTanKt; "' ' Violet Yellow Black Yellow-Olive Yellow White Ijght Yellow Orange-Yellow Yellow Vellow Yellow Red Yellow Yellow Yellow Light Blue Yellow-Green Yellow Deep Blue Green-Slate Yellow .... IiuUgo . . . , Orange-Yellow Yellow Violet Vellow-Maroon" Black Greenish Brown White Red Orange Faint Yellow-Slight Green Deeper Green Dull Green Violet Bluish Green-Brown Blue Black Blue-Black Blue White Blue Blue Blue More Vivid Blue Red Violet Blue Brown-Pale Tint of Violet Blue Yellow Green Blue Indigo Blue Dark Blue-Indigo Blue Violet Dark Blue-Violet Black Faint Violet-Black Violet White Violet Violet Deeper Violet Violet Red Red-Violet-Purple Violet .... Light Red Yellow Brown-Slight Red Violet Light Purple Violet Blue Fine Blue-Violet Violet Indigo Deep Blue-VJolet IV THE MODIFICATION OF LIGHT "The moon is up, and yet it is not night — " THE modification of light sources for the at- tainment of eye-comfort, atmosphere and re- pose in the home involves among other considera- tions an analysis of the glassware used in lighting. Whether in the home or abroad, the over brilliancy of modern illuminants should legally necessitate their concealment within shades for the purpose of eye protection and, where necessary, for the redis- tribution of light over working areas. Since our visual impressions are invariably acquired from surface indications, it is evident that the effects and influence of artificial light are very largely de- pendent on its shade or covering. Therefore the source of light should invariably be concealed in appropriate glassware, which when it becomes a secondary source, shall exercise its functions of eliminating glare, giving a useful distribution of light, and in appearance becoming literally a part of its decorative environment. 32 Comparison booths showing the action of shades which do not entirely inclose lamps. 1 and 3. Ordinary white opal glass ; 3. Glass which transmits and reflects ; 4 and 6. Sheffield design; 5. Dense opal of proper shape. The various types of inclosing shades contrasted. 1. Welsbach reflex in ground glass; 3. Dense opal globe: 3. Common prismatic glass shade; 4. Reflex lamp opal shade; 5. Same type glass as one over tungsten lamp: 6. Undesirable ground glass shade. See poffe 53 The old iron fixtures of German Gothic design are properly matched with the lantern shade; how unsatisfactory is the cheap, inefficient, modern shade in contrast. MODIFICATION OF LIGHT 33 Never introduce in the environment of the home those shades or globes which suggest the ugly, com- monplace, ribbed affairs of the shop interior. Re- member, the eye cannot refrain from straying to- ward a source of light and let that source be mellow, subdued, and artistic. Several years ago, when electric illuminants were less economical than now, the glassware manufac- turer did his best to make shades which would re- flect, re-direct, and concentrate every ray of light over a working area, unknowingly sacrificing every consideration of appearance, beauty, or ef- fect, for economic efficiency. To-day, however, owing to the wonderful economy of illuminants and to the increased use of gas and electric light in thousands of homes, the progressive glass maker must shape his product for grace as well as utility. Artificial light is now so cheap in cost that the great problem of the hour is to prevent its becom- ing cheap in appearance — and to this end the makers of lighting glassware must come to the res- cue. Some of them have, but others still continue to unload an ugly product which has become com- monplace and undesirable, ignoring all the won- derful possibilities of the chemistry of glass for the time-worn, futile argument of economy. The more progressive glassmakers who have 34 THE LIGHTING BOOK done things worth while, have erred, perhaps, in that their product is not always so attractive when illuminated as it is by daylight. This is because certain forms of glassware for lighting are adapted to modern illuminants, and others are not. While "transparency" is the most common at- tribute of glass, there are kinds which are but slightly transparent, even opaque. After the fire-clay pots, in which a mixture of sand, carbonate of soda, carbonate of calcium, and red oxide of lead have been heated and maintained at a melting temperature, the furnace is cooled, and the glass, at various stages of cooling, may be blown, cast, pressed, rolled, drawn, cut, drilled, ground, and shaped in many forms. Acid etch- ings, and blasting and grinding, have various ef- fects in bringing out the body color and lending texture or softness of tone, and these various ap- plications modify the appearance of glassware, and have much to do with its artistic effect, and its transparency, which should be carefully consid- ered — and avoided. In many interiors with average ceiling heights, lighting fixtures are hung so that the pendant, or upright shades are continually within the visual field. In such cases glassware must be selected to perform several functions. Ocular comfort de- MODIFICATION OF LIGHT 35 mands that these globes shall be restful and unin- jurious to the eye, since the brilliancy of the light source within them must be subdued by their dif- fusive action. Globes of harmonious contour and with that proportion of line, expressive of period and fix- ture design, should be selected. It matters not how beautiful a globe may be, when not illumi- nated, if when lighted an ugly, glaring splotch of light reveals the location of the source, and de- stroys its pictorial value. Globes and shades may be of totally enclosing or semi-enclosing form. The former entirely en- close a light source, or else expose but a small portion of the lamp tip. In globes of such form, light from the illuminant within is transmitted through the structure of the glass, and the pleas- ing appearance of such globes and their diffusive properties is entirely dependent upon the nature of the glass and its surface treatment. In a totally enclosing globe of ordinary clear glass, the outer surface of which has been ground or etched with acid, there is apparent a brilliant spot of light in the midst of an illuminated area of less intensity. The microscope and camera combined were utilized by the writer in studying the phenomenon 36 THE LIGHTING BOOK of light transmission in various media and with ground glass it was noticed that the effect produced was to allow light rays to pass through the glass without changing their direction. It is well in this connection to realize that with either an electric bulb or incandescent gas mantle, the greatest candle power is obtained from the The Light from a Tungsten or Lamp is Mainly Distributed Along the Horizontal side of the lamp, the greatest radiating surface be- ing there. Naturally from the tip or base, where the radiating surface is less and there is much im- pediment to light rays in the form of metal sockets or burners, the light is weakened. .Gas or electric lights are therefore rated by their horizontal, or side candle power. Hence the electric lamp which gives sixteen candle power on the hori- zontal, is rated as a sixteen candle power lamp, despite the fact that the candle power from the MODIFICATION OF LIGHT 37 tip downward (when the lamp is in a pendant position) is but 6.6. The bright spot light, tells us beyond dispute that the greatest candle power is on the horizontal and nowhere else. The diagram below (marked B) shows the dis- tribution of light about a bare sixteen candlepower 3. The Modification in the Direction of Light Made by Frosting the Bulb. B, Clear Glass; A, Ground Glass lamp. The effect of "frosting" or roughening the outer surface of the glass bulb is indicated by A, the effect of this treatment being to give more light in directions where there was less before. Thus, where the greatest light obtained from the bare bulb is on the horizontal, the effect of "frost- ing" is to decrease the light in that direction. But, on the other hand, where previously there was less light — from the tip of the lamp below, and the 38 THE LIGHTING BOOK socket above — "frosting" increases quite appreci- ably the useful light in these directions. In the same manner, the diagram (page 36) il- lustrates the distribution of light about a tungsten or "mazda" lamp. With gas lamps there is a greater amount of light directly below the lamp, The Light Distribution from an Upright Gas Mantle Closely Resembles that of the Tungsten Lamp. The Inverted Mantle Beside Throws Most of the Light Below owing to the greater light-radiating surface there. Thus, in the diagram above the characteristic dis- tribution of light about a bare Welsbach inverted incandescent gas mantle is shown. The figure be- side it shows the striking similarity in distribu- tion between an upright Welsbach gas mantle and that of the tungsten lamp. The photograph facing page 5 shows an arrangement of a series of compartments for comparing various illuminants and their acces- sories. The intensity of light beijeath each lamp is revealed by the brightness of the cards, num- MODIFICATION OF LIGHT 39 bered respectively and consecutively from i to 6 for purposes of identification and comparative reference. No. I of this photograph is a Welsbach reflex lamp. Over the inverted mantle is a globe of Verre Krasna glass, the very finest form of im- ported opal, manufactured in Austria. The per- fect diffusion of this glassware is apparent. No. 4 is another Welsbach reflex lamp within a globe of ground glass. This glaring effect, and the higher intensity of light on card No. i is well marked. No. 2 is a 40 watt tungsten lamp within an opal globe similar to No. i. No. 3 is a 40 watt tungsten lamp within a globe formed to rep- resent an old Gothic lantern with imitation leaded glass panels. Unfortunately the glass used is sur- faced roughed — as is manifest by the characteristic glare and non-modification of light direction. The fact that ground glass does not appreciably / change the distribution of light about a lamp is forcibly demonstrated by comparing No. 3 and No. 6 where lamps of the same size are placed respectively in ground glass and behind a paper transparency. Card No. 3 is little brighter than card No. 6. No. 5 illustrates how dense opal glassware assists in reducing glare and expressing admirably the character of the globe. Beautiful 40 THE LIGHTING BOOK designs in has relief are wonderfully effective in such glass when not over lighted. One need have no fear as to the placement of such globes or their effect on visual functions. Even on lighting fixtures hung so low that their globes are constantly in the visual field — dense opal glassware will work wonders in correcting such injurious conditions. Nor do not feel that light is wasted in using dense globes which decrease source brilliancy and modify it as to color. The one thing which the illuminant manufacturer has done satisfactorily, is the production of illuminants which are eco- nomical, but it remains for the user to make them visually safe and adaptable to aesthetic and indi- vidual requirements. It is interesting to note that the globe which really meets esthetic requirements — can never be .productive of glare, since the glaring splotch of light so offensively distortive of detail is a vul- garity irrevocably opposed to artistic expression in any form. Judge globes, therefore, relatively, as a part of your decorative ensemble, and you will find the globe which satisfies the aesthetic is quite likely to meet physiological requirements. The higher the pedestal the wider the area of useful reading light with a portable lamp. The art glass shade, however, must be low enough to leave the eyes in shadow. An illustration of the eyebrow's function in pro- tecting the eye. A higher pedestal would greatly improve this lamp. s s "Stc g J= rt « ij "ti > t* 5j= •a ^•S •S'Hj; c c « g o S3 " bO' REDIRECTING LIGHT j3 thing really artistic if you but follow this simple rule. Once more, we have a new array of shades in our comparison booth awaiting our inspection. First let us compare No. i and No. 3 in the lower illus- tration facing page 32. No. i is a ground glass globe over a Welsbach reflex inverted gas mantle. I have mentioned before the fact that an inverted gas mantle gives more light downward from the mantle tip than a tungsten lamp and this we see is true in comparing No. i with No. 3 — an ordinary prismatic shade over a 60 watt tungsten lamp. Prism glass allows at least 30 per cent, of the use- ful light to pass through the glass upwards — when clean — and reflects about 70 per cent, below from its polished inner surface. The prisms on the outer surface of the glass assist in this reflection to some extent — when clean — but not to the degree claimed by manufacturers. As a matter of fact the pol- ished inner surface of the glass itself reflects at least 30 per cent, of the light which never enters the prisms. Prismatic reflectors should never be placed within the visual field, unless interiorly depol- ished by acid treatment. In emphasizing this statement Dr. Percy W. Cobb, physiologist for a group of local tungsten lamp makers, states: "In 54 THE LIGHTING BOOK the case of prismatic reflectors it is only when they are so far away that the eye is unable to distinguish their individual surfaces, and the media of the eye can themselves perform the necessary diffusion, that there is any reduction in intrinsic brilliancy significant for the protection of the eye." Owing to the ugliness of prism glassware, and the fact that it has become commonplace it should never be used in any home where motives of re- finement hold sway. Realizing in a measure how obnoxious a set product can become through vul- gar usage, manufacturers of this glass have at- tempted to overcome these objections by changing the shape and form of prisms and globes. These efforts have been unsuccessful for the very good reason that the prisms are so regular, unvarying and monotonous in appearance that they mar the surface of glassware just as smallpox pittings ruin the fairest complexion. If shades are to have any exterior markings these must be in the form of greatly varied ornamentation, not an unvarying series of bumps and hollows. In the comparison booth just referred to, No. 2 is a fairly dense opal globe which compares equally with the prism shade in No. 3 so far as distribution of light is concerned. The difference in downward light between inverted gas mantles and tungsten REDIRECTING LIGHT 55 lamps is seen by comparing No. i and No. 5 where glass of the same type as No. i is placed over a 60 watt tungsten lamp — the difference on the cards be- ing well marked. No. 6 is merely a "shade" in name only, being an ordinary piece of ground glass having absolutely no inner surface light re- directing properties. Let me place myself on rec- ord here and now in stating that I believe shades of the type described in this chapter have outlived as it were their usefulness. Even with depolished inner surfaces the tremendous brilliancy of the tungsten lamps, and the increase in brilliancy which must inevitably attend further illuminant improvements, will necessitate the use of totally enclosing glassware of an attractive character such as to differentiate and give dignity. Lamps will be placed within soft toned beautiful glassware eliminating glare, and every useful ray of light will be utilized by enclosed lamps in opaque re- flectors which will redirect every ray of light in a manner suitable from physiological, utilitarian^ and aesthetic requirements. VII LIGHT ON THE PATH "Shine by the side of every path we tread, With such a lustre he who runs may read." THOSE partially enclosing shades, of the commonplace, ugly commercial type — the kind which must never be placed where they can be seen in the home^ — have certain useful applica- tions where their ugliness is concealed from view. In order to appreciate just how incongruous shades of commonplace design are amid decora- tive environment, consider the interior rich in the period of medieval German Gothic architecture opposite page 33. These old iron fixtures thor- oughly in harmony with their surroundings, and of individual pictorial value, are marred by the crude commercial glassware, which is almost as commonplace and obnoxious as prismatic glass. This shade, though it directs some useful light downward, allows enough transmitted light up- ward through the shade to give a requisite degree of shadow contrast in revealing the admirable s« LIGHT ON THE PATH 57 grotesque above. The desirability, therefore, is apparent of relating these qualities beneath a more attractive exterior, and this was accomplished by placing the form of a Gothic lantern over a smaller shade of opal glass snugly ensconced within, attaining thereby an economic utilization of light together with a perfect realization of esthetic requirements. Thece are other applications where unattractive commonplace shades may be concealed, and simi- larly utilized with excellent results. Portable reading lamps as they are usually man- ufactured and sold, while offering a wide variety of pleasing pedestal designs and beautiful effects in leaded art glass, have a most inefficient arrange- ment of lamps whereby a great amount of useful light is wantonly wasted — light which costs money and which is recorded on the meter whether or not it IS utilized efficiently. The inner surfaces of these art glass domes generally consist of the unfinished side of the glass particles forming the design or pattern, and of too dark and non-uniform a nature to serve as a good reflecting surface. Hence, only the light from the side of the lamp exposed to the table top is effective, all the light from the upper side, within the art shade, serving merely to illuminate the art glass without contrib- 58 THE LIGHTING BOOK uting one bit of light on the reading page. Port- able lamps with clusters of three or five lamps, throw a spot of light directly below the lamps, not covering a sufficiently wide area to meet the read- ing requirements of several persons seated around the table. A Scheme to Make the Porta- ble Lamp Give Better Light The accompanying diagram shows how to make your portable give better light at a lower cost. Have a pull chain socket placed in an upright position as indicated. If the art glass dome is supported by a center rod, a simple wire shade holder, similar to those used on oil lamps, con- cealed within the dome, will permit a dense opal shade depolished inside, to be placed atop the lamp, as indicated. It is unnecessary to have this LIGHT ON THE PATH 59 small shade supported, and it may rest on top of the lamp tip. The shade must be deep enough to come down and cover the light-giving wires, or filament of the lamp, else it cannot perform its function of redirecting light. The lamp and its shade must be well covered by the art glass dome. There have been some lamps like this offered for sale, but the mistake was made of using an inner shade of prismatic glass, producing glare and caus- ing intense ocular discomfort to those seated within range. In selecting shades for such ap- plications insist upon having amber opal, depol- ished on the inside. In buying portable reading lamps always re- member that the higher the pedestal is, the wider will be the area of useful reading light. A short squatty lamp, even with a shade applied as de- scribed, will necessarily have its redirected light confined within a narrow circular area below the lamp — not wide enough in range to enable more than one to read with comfort at a table so lighted. A cut shows how the rim of the art glass dome cuts the redirected light so as to leave the face of the reader in shadow, directing the light where it is most needed — on the reading page not on the eye. (Upper picture facing page 40.) In earlier chapters I have spoken of the func- 6o THE LIGHTING BOOK tions of the eyebrow in protecting the eye. An excellent illustration of this is seen facing page 40 and it also shows a lamp which would be greatly improved by a higher pedestal. Oftentimes a shade which is purely a shade, in the implied sense of shading, or protecting the eye, can be a re-director of light as well, if properly modified. For example, the glassware shown fac- ing page 41 can be obtained in two forms, one rough and untreated on the inside, the other with an inner layer of white opal glass. The former has no re-directive power owing to the negligible quality of its dark, non uniform inner surface, while the latter with its dead white inner surface, redirects a higher percentage of the light which strikes it. Here again we have a striking compar- ison between modern gas and electric illuminants. Assuming that both globes are without white in- ner surfaces, and that the one on the left "E" is a tungsten lamp, and the one on the right "G" an inverted Welsbach reflex lamp. The tungsten lamp would be at a disadvantage since the great- est light (on the side) would pass through the glass in the direction "S" without being re-di- rected. The light from the tip "D" is of no greater value than if the lamp was without a shade. But with the inverted gas mantle "G" a much a r" u o or (J ^ be CJ f5 c tfl a O rt p Examples of the best types of modern glassware. De- signs such as this are worked in amber colored glass, and appear in a variety of designs, some worked in the glass and some in bas relief. LIGHT ON THE PATH 6i greater light is given from the tip downward (D) with proportionately less passing through the glass in the horizontal direction G.S. With a white opal inner surface the side light from the tungsten would be redirected as indicated by the broken line "S"2, and would then be more nearly com- parable to the Welsbach lamp from an economic viewpoint. On the other hand, the inverted glass mantle within a white opal interior would also have its useful downward light greatly augmented — the difference still being in its favor over the tungsten. There is one other use to which these shades may be put, general enough to deserve special mention. Decorators will tell you that the din- ing-room dome is atrocious, that it should never be used. Nevertheless, this is more a question of individual taste than dogmatic prejudice. Thou- sands who live in apartments must meet existing conditions, and I am willing to predict that it will be many years before the dome becomes ex- tinct as a light giving source above the dining table. Those who have them, naturally, would like to know how to make the best of them. The diagram shows a dome placed at the correct height above the table. The average dome, like the average portable lamp, is fitted with a junk-like 62 THE LIGHTING BOOK cluster of lamps most inefBcient and un-economi- cal. An opal shade — depolished inside — placed well up within the neck of the dome gives the best redirection of light and conceals the mechanism See that the Dining Room Dome Light is Placed AT a Proper Height. The Lamps Should be Out of the Line of Vision of the thing entirely from view. Many a case of indigestion has resulted from constant nightly ex- posure of overstrained eyes and nerves to the in- sidious glare of exposed lights above the dining table. The effect of such an arrangement, which is LIGHT ON THE PATH 63 decidedly efifective, appears opposite page 46. This particular dome is lighted with gas, the chain being hollow. From a point near the door a pneu- matic button enables one to turn the light on and ofif with equal facility. The brightness of the ceiling is caused chiefly By the light diffused up- wards from the white table cloth. To find to one's own satisfaction how much light is really redi^ rected in this manner, place the table cloth over the table and seat yourself facing some one oppo- site; at a given word whip the cloth from the table watching the features of your "vis-a-vis" intently the while. You will think momentarily that the lights were lowered almost to the point of ex- tinction. VIII MAKING THE MOST OF LIGHT "Walk while ye have the light lest darkness come upon you." WE have considered the action of enclosing, and partially enclosing globes in modify- ing the effect of light sources. Perhaps it has oc- curred to the reader that in general effect these various types of globes and shades, all more or less resemble the same thing — a spot light dangling from or supported upon those obstructions to our view, which in moments of pleasantry we term "lighting fixtures." The lighting of the future will be distinctive if anything, and to-day those who have any other interest in lighting, save the sale of stale and inadequate equipment, are striving to in- dicate ways and means of expressing character, individuality, and attraction in lighting, with a reasonable and sane degree of economy. It is quite natural and desirable that the light emitted by our modern illuminants should be utilized economically, but this must be accom- plished with due regard for the effect and appear- 64 MAKING MOST OF LIGHT 65 ance of such utilization. One of the most humor- ous incidents in the chain of grotesque accidents, which have marred rather than marked the path of lighting progress, was the extravagant claim of prism shade makers that their different shaped shades (withal so much alike that Milton's lines: "that other shape, if shape it might be called that shape had none" best describes the result) were an infallible panacea for all lighting ills. When lights are absolutely concealed from view, in creating most beautiful and individual effects, differing entirely from each other, under these conditions of concealment the appearance of the light redirecting accessory is not important, be- cause it is hidden from view. What we are most concerned with then, is its ability to redirect every ray of light from a lamp, so that the desired effect will be obtained in a manner both economical and efficient. Redirecting surfaces which accomplish' this purpose are called reflectors and do not trans- mit light, being opaque — their inner surfaces re- flecting light in proportion to their reflecting power. By turning to page 47 (upper picture) we will find our familiar comparison booths re- plenished with a new assortment of glassware — not shades or globes this time, but reflectors, await- ing our inspection. 66 THE LIGHTING BOOK No. 5, is a bare loo watt tungsten lamp. The brightness on the upper part of the curtains shows clearly that the greatest light is in that direction and not downward from the tip of the lamp, as is proved by the dark card. In No. 6, a fiat mirror plate is placed over the lamp, which accomplishes nothing whatever in redirecting the horizontal light downward, which is plainly evidenced by the fact that card No. 6 is as dark as card No. 5. This rudely shatters the delusion so fondly cherished by merchants who cover the ceilings of their show windows with mirrors, in the belief that great light ■ is thereby reflected downwards. Card No. 4 shows the result of placing a cone shaped reflector of ordinary blotting paper over a lamp of the same size as that in No. 5 and No. 6. In No. 3 is a reflector formed by depositing a layer of pure metallic silver over a thin form of glass. Silver is the best ■ reflecting surface known, and even while the light has to pass through the glass be- fore touching the silver, and then back again through the glass, with two resultant absorptions the effect of this wonderful redirective surface is forcibly indicated by the brightness on card No. 3. Reflectors of this type — pure metallic silver on the back of glass — must not be confounded with the cheap inferior "quicksilver" reflectors, which are A corner of a room where standard indirect equipment is used. The reflectors throw the light upon the ceiling from whence it is diffused evenly about the whole room. 2 ° — MAKING MOST OF LIGHT 67 being promoted by unscrupulous manufacturers. These consist of an ordinary quicksilver 'Tracking" covered with a coat of enamel. The heat of the lamp, expansion of the glass, and its contraction, disintegrate the quicksilver and crack its enamel backing — which cannot be baked on. Pure me- tallic silver on the back of glass is elastic and does not crack, expanding and contracting pliantly with the variations of the glass itself. Owing to the series of bright streaks, or lines of light in the light-giving element of the tungsten lamp, bright reflecting surfaces multiply images of these lines, mirror like, and project them downward upon working surfaces where (if the reflector is not perfectly stationary above) a series of fluctuations most conducive to eye strain occur. Reverting to the illustrated booths, page 47, No. 2 is an aluminum reflector, giving a streaked ef- fect owing to its perfectly smooth inner surface. No. I is an opal shade such as previously de- scribed. It is shown here to illustrate the fallacy of using glassware which allows light to pass through and above in applications which require all the light below. Now glance at page 47 (lower cut) and behold our comparison booth re-equipped for the last time. No. 6 shows the mirror plate again, with 68 THE LIGHTING BOOK its non-redirective efifect as evidenced by the dark card below. No. 5 is an ordinary newspaper hanging about the lamp, and redirecting some light below on the card — at the same time protecting the eye. No. 4 is the aluminum reflector over a Welsbach reflex inverted gas mantle, compared with a 100 watt Mazda tungsten lamp No. 3 — in a pure silver re- flector. Compare No. 4 with No. 2 (Fig. i) and note the absence of streaks. This is due to the uni- form luminosity of the gas mantle, which is free from the bright lines of intrinsic brilliancy characteristic of the Mazda tungsten lamp. No. 2 (Fig. 2) is the same blotting paper shade (No. 4, Fig. I ) and No. i is a Welsbach reflex inverted gas mantle within a thin globe of imported Aus- trian opal glass. The relatively greater down- ward light from the gas mantle over the tungsten lamp is particularly emphasized here, since even with the powerful silver reflecting surfaces over the latter there is not the tremendous difference which one might expect, and with the aluminium re- flector No. 4 over the inverted mantle the contribu- tion of its side light to that of the downward (mantle tip) light at least equals the effect in No. 3. We have now reached a stage when it is possi- ble to apply these elementary (but comparatively MAKING MOST OF LIGHT 69 unknown) facts to applications where the cause being known the effect can be more readily ap- preciated. IX INDIRECT LIGHTING "In Nature's way, the Moon, at night, Shines, indirect by borrowed light." OPAQUE reflectors which utilize by reflec- tion all the useful light generated by a gas or electric lamp, were, up to a few years ago, used mostly for display windows and industrial light- ing — in those rare instances when anything but bare lamps was deemed necessary for protecting the eye, or utilizing light. With the eflSciency of modern gas and electric illuminants they afford a means of improving many lighting conditions which through the fix- ture manufacturers' ignorance, or neglect of mod- ern requirements, are most unsatisfactory. Every one has noticed lighting fixtures with bare lamps placed therein, causing glare and ruining the pictorial effect. Many a hall lantern is so glaring that one turns away with eyes painfully smarting. This represents money wasted, and can- not be termed artistic in any sense of the word. 70 INDIRECT LIGHTING 71 The diagrams show how lamps are usually placed in lantern fixtures, and illustrate the remedy, con- sisting of an efficient opaque reflector placed high up within the lantern, and covering the lamp so that all its useful light strikes the reflecting sur- face and is redirected downward through the glass The Proper Position of Lamps in Lantern Fixtures is in the Upper Part Out of Sight. Avoid Such Arrangements as the Right Hand One panels. This is an instance where ground glass might properly be used for lantern panels, since the lamp is far enough distant to avoid the sugges- tion of any bright spot, and the redirection of light downward by the reflectors' surface would be un- changed in passing through the ground glass, for reasons which have been explained. There is a growing sentiment on the part of dis- criminating persons to obtain individuality in their lighting, and this can only be accomplished 72 THE LIGHTING BOOK by reconciling both decorative and lighting ar- rangements. Shown opposite page 52 is such an effort on the part of one who would rather lead than follow stupidly in the beaten path. The result was "ob- tained by placing opaque silver reflectors above a daylight skylight fitted with diffusing glass pan- els, spacing the reflectors uniformly so as to obtain a uniform luminosity of skylight surface, and hanging them high enough to avoid any sugges- tion of bright spots from below. With the economy of modern illuminants there is no limit to the novel and pleasing effects in lighting which may be cheaply installed and eco- nomically maintained. By dropping white can- vas curtains before windows, and reflecting light against the diffusing white surface of the cloth, an interior may be most agreeably lighted. In the case of bay windows the curtain must be arranged in semi-cylindrical form, at least three feet distant from the glass. This requires a pro- jecting and protecting ledge, which ofttimes may be perfectly concealed beneath architectural for- mations. The system is particularly applicable to bungalows with continuous veranda forma- tions, the veranda roof affording an excellent po- sition for the concealment of the lamps and re- The table portable produces a homelike effect by leaving the walls in part shadow. This is an example of a good type of lamp, high pedestal and simple glassware. The objeotion to the opaque bodies often used in indirect lighting is overcome here. - This is an indirect unit with a small additional light used simply to illuminate the art glass bowl. INDIRECT LIGHTING 73 flectors. By covering the reflectors with gelatine film beautiful effects may be obtained. In this way a room may be suffused with the mellow radi- ance of sunset, or the soft glow of twilight by tlie turn of a switch. It is effects like these which make of artificial light something more than a necessary evil, something which contributes gen- erously to the comfort and happiness oi those whose desire for better working and living condi- tions, inspiring them to work out their own indi- vidual requirements on a broad progressive basis. Several years ago, an enterprising individual, in fact a pioneer in the lighting field, conceived the idea of concealing the source of light from view, and by the use of enclosing reflectors, to redirect every ray of light from the source against the ceil- ing, thereby obtaining a secondary redirecting sur- face of wide expanse, obviously much greater than the comparatively small area of a reflector, which barely encloses a source of light. Without going into the uninteresting and tedi- ous technicalities it is a positive fact that so far as quality of light is concerned, indirect lighting is just as economical as direct. It has been urged by nervous competitors — manufacturers of stereo- typed direct lighting equipment — that "regardless of their high efficiency in reflecting light, these 74 THE LIGHTING BOOK pure silver-coated reflectors gather dirt, being in an inverted position." With proper maintenance — easily and quickly given — this criticism is speci- ous. Thousands of dollars are spent annually in washing windows to let natural light in but a very small amount is expended in cleansing globes and shades to let artificial light out. Globes and shades are never cleaned, because lamp manufacturers have never been considerate enough of the consumer's satisfaction to print a simple inscription on their lamps' cartons explain- ing that dirty lamps give at least 20 per cent, less light. Indirect lighting reflectors give good sat- isfaction, if only cleaned once a month and then a dry rag will do the trick. The necessary thing is to have reflecting surfaces which will not depre- ciate from the heat of lamps, and crack or grow discolored, as quicksilver backed reflectors invar- iably do after a comparatively short use. For the lighting of the home, single reflectors with 100 watt tungsten lamps, or upright Wels- bach gas mantles give pleasing effects in interiors of average size. In larger rooms reflectors are grouped in clusters and concealed within artistic exterior molds, harmonizing with the decorative treatment. To my mind the best feature about this new INDIRECT LIGHTING 75 method of utilizing artificial light, aside from the blessed relief from eye strain which it gives, is its versatility of expression. It matters not that the reflectors which direct the light against the ceiling are ugly, since they are concealed from view, and in effecting this concealment, any exterior form may be used. Hence, one is not limited in choice to a few varied designs in glassware, which, viewed from a distance, look more or less alike. The florist may utilize his floral baskets to house his lighting equipment, the wine merchant his casks (iron bound) hanging from chains and the druggist his symbolic urns, or mortar and pestle. There is absolutely no limit to the expression of originality in designing lighting of this type, ex- cept the artistic perception and originality of the designer. Diagrams show how these reflectors of pure silver are grouped and placed within bowls of a composite material, called "compone" which can be finished to resemble exactly any metal fix- ture finish — old brass, brushed brass, ivory, verde antique, Pompeiian bronze, etc. (Page 83.) In rebuttal of the assertion that indirect lighting equipment is too greatly influenced by deposition of dirt to be practical, the photographs opposite P^g^ 53 illustrate indirect lighting on ver- andas as contrasted with the ordinary fixtures 76 THE LIGHTING BOOK used. The same size lamp was common to both fixtures — namely, one 40 watt tungsten, and the difference depicted by the camera is no greater than actually appears to the eye. This particular installation, one of several in the locality, receives a casual dusting with a dry cloth about every three months. Of course, in lighting a room generally, as in- direct lighting does, there is not the high bright light which obtains directly below a single direct light. On the other hand, where with such low general illumination beneath the shade but few persons could read comfortably, the general light- ing enables one to read in any part of the room indi- rectly lighted. Let every one try this experiment on fixtures with upright or pendant gas or electric lamps. Shape a piece of white cardboard funnel like, and place it under the lamp (if pendant) or over it (if upright) so that the useful horizontal light from the filament, or gas mantle, is redi- rected upwards on the ceiling. The immediate relief to the eye and the pleasing aspect of the room with its wonderful increase of useful light will seem like a magical transformation, and in the majority of cases it is a matter of simplicity and inexpense to make the effect permanent. X INDIVIDUALITY IN LIGHTING "For the apparel oft proclaims the man." WE have alluded to the possibilities afforded by indirect lighting for distinctive artistic effects, but this does not imply that fixtures must necessarily be purchased in their attainment. Perhaps the lighting fixtures under considera- tion are so ugly that their removal would be de- sirable, and in that event it is not necessary to re- place them by others, particularly where a low ceil- ing would be greatly improved by eliminating dangling impediments of brass and iron which serve to exaggerate the lowness of a room. An interior may be lighted by indirect lighting, the reflectors being concealed above and below the mantle top. Two 60 watt tungstens in pure silver coated reflectors shaped so as to redirect the light well toward the center of the ceiling, and not on the adjacent wall, are used, the control being in the form of a pull chain socket concealed at the mantle side next tlie wall. In this way, when pianos are 77 78 THE LIGHTING BOOK placed cornerwise, one lamp and reflector con- cealed behind will beautifully illuminate an in- terior. Very often there are urns and pedestals in the home which can be converted into pleasing indirect lighting units, simply by placing reflec- tors and lamps within them, and -ivithout changing A Form of Indirect Lighting Unit Available for Home Lighting Ef- fects in the least their original exterior appearance. There are thousands of designs which are appli- cable to such usage, and which may be obtained in various material ranging from ordinary plaster and terra cotta to wonderful hand work rendered in wood and marble. The reflector in the dia- gram is represented in part section to show the proper position of the lamp filament with refer- ence to the redirecting surface. In the same way Indirect lighting is applicaMe- to portable lamps. The power- ful reflector throws the light upward to the ceiling whence it is diffused. Here the light is directed ' against the glass bowl which is used as a secondary source of distribution. Users of gas should be aware that drop cords may be used from plugs in the floor. There also is an improved device by which a hanging table light can be utilized for gas much as it is for electricity INDIVIDUALITY IN LIGHTING 79 the top of a gas mantle should not project above the top of the reflector. The Congress Hotel dining-room shows an in- terior which is an excellent example of original artistic treatment of light as a part of decoration. When one enters this interior, the first sensation is one of surprise — where is the light coming from? An involuntary glance at the ceiling fol- lows, but fails to reveal aught resembling those ornate masses of gold and bronze which for want of a better name some unknown humorist has christened "fixtures." This then is the secret of attraction in lighting, as in all things : have some- thing different. But here the difference is not alone due to the fact that for the tiresomely con- ventional ceiling fixtures have been substituted beautiful pedestal urns with reflectors concealed within, for there is something else more subtle than any material thing which holds one spell- bound by its mystery and charm — and that is color — the psychology of light. For, in this beautiful interior there prevails a warm, soft rosy glow, emanating apparently from nowhere, yet, which lends to the complexion of the fair sex the deli- cate flush of a full blown rose. (Opposite page 60.) This question of color is important in applica- tions of indirect light — the more so because it has 8o THE LIGHTING BOOK been entirely ignored — that is, from all save the viewpoint of the Illuminating Engineer, who, knowing that white ceilings reflect more light than dark, and knowing little else, has unfailingly pre- scribed white as the only color for indirect light- ing, because it is "economical" and "efficient" from the "utilitarian" viewpoint. By all means let us have lighting that is within the means of our purse, but why ignore forever those vital consid- erations of "effect" which means so much in dif- ferentiating the atmosphere of the home from the crude, ugly lighting of the store and office. I have repeatedly explained and demonstrated to manufacturers of lighting equipment, and their salesmen the desirability of amber light in the home. Within these pages I have logically proved the necessity for such color modifications. I have never yet heard of any one who made the experiment of modifying white light, who was not delighted beyond measure with the amber effect, both from the esthetic and physiological view- point. Decorators and architects unanimously agree with me on this poi;it, yet, those others pro- fessing, or posing as competent to advise imparti- ally on lighting matters, stubbornly exhibit a preference for the glaring white light of the tungs- ten lamp. The gas industry has intelligently rec- INDIVIDUALITY IN LIGHTING 8i: ognized modern, requirements in supplying the amber light incandescent gas mantle. We must conclude therefore that those interested selfishly in the sale of electric illuminants fear to face is- sues which tend to awaken the mind of the public along lines of investigation opposed to the indis- criminate purchasing of inadequate equipment. Again, let the individual decide. Place over the top of ypur indirect lighting reflector a strip of amber gelatine film, previously described, and note the transformation in the room. It is not the true color values of material which we desire, but atmosphere, pictorial value, tone, feeling and ex- pression of repose, which only amber light can give to the home at night. We have discussed in a general way the question of dirt deposition on these inverted reflectors for indirect lighting. Color modification assists greatly in this relation for if a strip of gelatine film be placed in a flat circular metal frame (formed by two flat circular strips of galvanized iron riveted together) it is a much simpler operation to dust ofif the surface of this than to delve down between the narrow con- fines of lamp and inner reflector surface. The Illuminating Engineer exclaims in horror: "But the absorption of light?" What of it? We have reached a stage of economy with modern ilium- 82 THE LIGHTING BOOK inants when it is no longer necessary to turn every atom of light to brilliance alone in an insane mis- directed, fanatical pursuit of "economy" and "ef- ficiency." Let our lighting be a treat not a threat to our eyes. And now there arises a question which has proved a bone of contention for wrangling manufacturers — principally because each one wanted the bone^ and that is whether the entire concealment of a light source is desirable. Unquestionably, hu- manity has for centuries been accustomed to "see- ing" a source of light at night. Unquestionably, hereditary precedent has perpetuated psychologi- cally an influence on the subconscious mind that a light source to be appreciated at night must be seen. It has been urged that no matter how dec- orative the opaque exterior of an indirect lighting fixture may be that it appears to the eye as a dark unattractive suspended mass. This would be true if side walls and floors were black, but it must be borne in mind that the light diffused down- ward from the ceiling is in turn re-diffused by the walls and floor, sidewise and upwards respectively. Consequently with side walls and floors of mod- erate lightness in color, a suflScient amount of light reaches the lower part of the fixture to relieve any suggestion of darkness. It is readily understand- INDIVIDUALITY IN LIGHTING 83 able why manufacturers interested in the sale of glassware alone, who for years had things their own way, owing to public ignorance, should en- courage such beliefs, but this effrontery in itself is no proof of the truth of such assertions. From the lessons taught by our comparison Various Forms of Bowls Used for Fixtures. At the Left a Semi- Indirect TVpe. The Right Hand Figure Shows Means of Il- luminating the Bowl with Indirect Lighting Equipment; the Center Diagram is Upper View of this Fixture Showing Re- flectors booths we have well in hand the importance of light utilization, that is, directing light where it is required for specific usages — not where it will be wasted. Accompanying diagrams show this. The figure at the left represents what glass makers have been pleased to term "semi-indirect lighting," meaning, presumably, lighting which is neither direct nor indirect, in which case the 84 THE LIGHTING BOOK designation is quite appropriate. If indirect lighting is to be of the slightest value, that is, if we are to obtain any benefit from the ceiling as a secondary diffusing and redirecting surface, it is imperative to direct every ray of light from the lamp upon its surface, or what is returned below will be of no value. The glass maker has produced many attractive bowls and urns in opal glass, which are grateful and pleasing to the eye when not over-lighted, but when lamps are arranged in cluster form, as shown, the pictorial value and beauty of the glass- ware is not only destroyed, but the amount of light directed upwards on the ceiling is in most cases not enough to be of even utilitarian value. Such glassware, with lights so arranged, usually allows about as much light to pass downward through the glass (transmitted) as is reflected or diffused upwards, and almost invariably interiors mis- lighted in this way are recognizable by bright spots of light directly above the fixture on the ceiling, with intermediate dark spaces giving a spotty and unattractive effect. I have never yet encountered one of these arrangements where any difference in the amount of light in the lower part of the room could be detected after the fixtures were covered by strips of cardboard, absolutely prevent- INDIVIDUALITY IN LIGHTING 85 ing any light from reaching the ceiling by any redirective action of the inner surface of the glass bowl. This proves conclusively that quantitatively the light directed upwards by such bowls is of negligible value, not only from a utilitarian view- point but also from an aesthetic one since a spotty uneven lighted ceiling can never be described as meeting decorative or architectural requirements. Furthermore, to reiterate, in most instances the light wasted between the bare bulbs, with that transmitted through the glass downward, obliter- ates all design. The diagram at the right shows how a very small lamp can be placed below silver reflectors arranged to direct all the useful light of the lamps upwards without waste. The center diagram, shown illustrates the appearance of such a fixture from above. Suitable glassware of a type which, like the alabaster stone, lends itself gracefully to indirect lighting fixtures is shown in the photo- graph (page 61). A wide variety of designs may be obtained from various glassmakers, so at present it is possible for one to select almost an exclusive design. The requirements of the future as regards individuality of expression will force glassmakers to cast sectional pieces of glassware, conforming with the fixture designs of lighting 86 THE LIGHTING BOOK specialists, and decorators, who must take lighting in their own hands if they would have it aid, not hinder, the expression of their work. When one lamp is sufficient, silver reflectors may be so applied as to adopt the principles al- ready elaborated. An attached opal cup diffuses sufficient light properly to illuminate the enclos- ing glass bowl. Samples of the glassmaker's art in treating opal glass with designs in bas relief, are represented on page 6i. This glassware is known as "Beaux Arts glass" and incorporates within its structure the property of transforming harsh white light into mellow amber radiance. The photograph fac- ing page 66 shows an interior lighted by a stand- ard indirect lighting equipment, consisting of small tungsten lamps within opaque silvered re- flectors within an opaque composite bowl. The side walls and floor are very dark, yet, to the eye the design of the bowl is very pleasingly revealed. XI LIGHT IN THE HOME "Where glowing embers in the room Teach light to counterfeit a gloom." LET US go through the home together apply^ ing our knowledge of lighting technique wherever it can serve us best in creating an atmos- phere of attraction and . repose. In lighting any interior, or exterior, we must first consider its ob- jects and then arrange our lighting to best satisfy these requirements- Beginning at the beginning we are now pre- pared to enter by the front door,^and for con- venience we will hastily assume that the street lighting is all that it. should be,- that there are no unsightly poles directly before the house,' and that no dazzling^ are light, like a rising sun; peers of- fensively . through our front windows, turning night into an unnatural day. Being on the ver- anda we are naturally interested in its lighting, of greater or less importance, depending on its size. On large verandas, in homes: where social 87 88 THE LIGHTING BOOK functions are the rule and not the exception, the veranda light becomes an important consideration. I have explained the possibilities of indirect light- ing for such applications, and will add that aside from its superiority over older systems from the utilitarian view point, it appeals to me particularly on account of the varied and graceful manner in which it may be applied: perchance in a floral basket, behind an ornamental cornice, within an urn, or in the form of a simple, yet, distinctive fix- ture, as previously illustrated. There is no more thoughtful way of speeding the parting guest than in lighting the path, so he will not break his neck in stumbling down dark steps. Of course, the control for veranda lighting must be placed inside, near the door, and in popular neighborhoods it is not amiss, oftentimes, to take the precaution of using lock sockets — a device which discourages free trade in lamps. With gas, remote pneumatic control, or an electric magnetic valve, can be cheaply installed, owing to the short distance for piping, and the very small tubes or wires can be "fished" through and above the veranda's ceiling without removing a plank or defacing woodwork. Electricians and contractors are not unwilling to work along progressive lines, but the stereotyped, narrow training which they have received from LIGHT IN THE HOME 89 the manufacturer of globes, shades, and fixtures, has given them the impression that all homes should be wired and lighted alike, with as similar equipment as possible, thereby enabling them to obtain the manufacturer's greatest discounts for "quantity lots." Hence the commonplace mo- notonous lighting of the present day, a natural result when lighting equipment is sold like sau- sages, by the yard. Having lingered unduly on the veranda, let us proceed within, pausing for a moment in the vesti- bule. Here sometimes letter boxes are to be found, and there are keyholes to be discovered on dark nights. When architectural, or decorative expression is of a nature to justify, fixtures in the form of lanterns can be used, but unless excep- tionally well designed it is questionable whether they add anything to the character of an entrance. With indirect porch lighting, one of its peculiari- ties is that one indirect fixture placed before a vestibule will direct sufficient light within for all requirements. We are now in the reception hall, or just plain hall whichever extreme you prefer. The picture opposite page 67 represents an entrance where the lighting fixture is perfectly in accord with its sur- roundings esthetically, but so bad from a utili- 90 THE LIGHTING BOOK tarian point of view that a make-shift arrangement consisting of a ball above and an ugly dangling lamp below had to be added. Of course; the ball was of ground glass, as evidenced by its reflection from the painting at the head of the stairs. Here is a case where reflectors could easily be concealed within the top of the fixture and the whole entrance beautifully lighted by the soft diffused light from the marble ceiling above. The photograph be- side itj shows a hall on a less pretentious scale. If the hall is to be used for no other purpose than a depository for coats, hats, and umbrellas, the lighting may be localized in preference to general illumination. General lighting always reveals. If there is nothing in our hall that would reflect admiration, the sensible thing to have is lighting which conceals and beautities,-^always with due regard for the necessities. Hence, if a hall mirror is frequently used, the features of persons using it must be sufficiently lighted. In such cases side wall brackets, such as described for bathroom lighting, only of more attractive design, can be used. When there is no porch light, the light of the hall riiust be so general and far reaching as to reveal the features of visitors. This can be accom- plished more easily with gas than with electricity, by turning the light up and down. The fixture Lighting sucli as this is not general enough to suit local requirements. It would be ever so much better were such reflex lights placed either side of the chiffonier and above it. Don't equip your kitchen with such arrangements las this. A single direct light casts shadows and is not as efficient as the indirect lighting which searches all crannies, per- mitting one to see clearly even into the depths of the oven and to clean corners under the sink. LIGHT IN THE HOME 91 shown in this case is an attractive opal globe, placed over a Welsbach reflex light. The remote pneumatic control, which I have previously men- tioned, is conveniently placed near the door, and is designated by an arrow. Passing on, we enter the living-room. Here is an interior, which under average conditions must serve several purposes, and each of these require special lighting. First we must consider occasions when a subdued light would be agreeable, and these are numerous. All during the day the woman in the home sees the same walls, the same decorations, the same pictures. Daylight, no matter how well modulated, reveals all these things. Hence at night, if artificial light can. lend an air of mystery to the surroundings by subduing the light on the side walls, there is an added charm to such lighting which comes as a welcome change each night. ■ This effect is ob- tained by the portable reading lamp, which has been previously discussed, and the effect of an in- terior so lighted appears facing page 72. When general lighting in such room is extinguished and the portable lighted the brightness of the side wall fades, and is replaced by a mysterious veil of shadow beneath which the walls recede, giving to the illusion a semblance of perspective which 92 THE LIGHTING BOOK is decidedly attractive. Old familiar objects are not quite so recognizable; their subdued aspect adds a new charm, and everything in the room is conducive to repose — if the light is right. The table lamp shown is one of many types. By virtue of its high pedestal it distributes the light over a wide area. If a longer exposure had been made, the floor would appear as bright as the table top, even to the doorway, and in choosing table lamps it is well to remember this point — the higher the pedestal the wider the area of distributed light. Some portable lamps are so faulty in construc- tion that the lamps themselves are a constant factor of annoyance to those seated about the table. In such cases it is best to cover the bottom of the large art glass shade with fine linen, stretched by lacing on a wire hoop, which in turn is secured within the shade rim by small wires placed at infrequent in- tervals. This diffusing screen entirely hides the ugly unfinished mechanism of the lamp and en- ables a layer of amber film to be placed atop it, obtaining thereby the visual comfort of the oil lamp. Perhaps it may then be necessary to use larger bulbs, consuming a bit more energy, but in such extreme cases it is generally found more economical to pay the difference to the lighting LIGHT IN THE HOME 93 company than to the oculist. And the cost of the extra light is not apt to be great. Opposite page 73 is the effect of the same in- terior revealed by indirect lighting with gas. The hollow chains conduct the gas to a Welsbach mantle within a silver reflector fitted with a small diffusing opal cap (previously illustrated) which illumines the enclosing bowl of Beiaux Arts glass, just sufficiently to bring out its beauty. This gen- eral lighting of a living-room is required when company is present, and when one desires to at- tract attention to fine furniture and book, cases filled with handsomely bound volumes of those books one is supposed to read. No matter how unprepossessing our ceiling fixtures may be, it is possible to modify its light as to color, and in eliminating glare, so these two systems of local and general lighting, both so necessary in living- rooms, can be enjoyed by almost every one. The center table is the best place for the portable lamp, because it gives a wide range of useful light, and that tables can be placed centrally without giving an overcrowded effect. .Both local and general illumination can be com- bined in one portable lamp, thanks to the ingenuity of makers of standard indirect lighting equipment. 94 THE LIGHTING BOOK So it is possible, without changing ceiling fixtures., to obtain both effects from one source. The mechanism of such a lamp is very simple. (See diagram.) The tungsten lamp "G" is placed .A The Mechanism .of an Indirect, Lighting Equipment for Portable Lamps with Pro- visioJi FOR Producing the Effect of Local Lighting within a silver covered reflector "A," supported by the holder "B." Light escaping from the lower exposed portion of the lamp strikes the flat white surface "C" and is diffused upwards against the outside of the reflector, which is finished in silver, and redirects the light against the exterior LIGHT IN THE HOME gg silk shade, giving just the right effect. The small lamps "D" are lighted when a subdued effect is desired in the room: both large and small lamps are controlled by the pull chain switches "E" and "F." The illustration opposite page 78 shows an interior lighted generally by one of these lamps, the light being directed aigainst the glass bowl above, which serves as a redirecting surface in conjunctiqn with the ceiling by directing rays of light about the room. A word as to drop cords hanging from fixtures to table lamps. These should be avoided when possible since their use detracts greatly from the general ensemble. Outlets can be located beneath tables without trouble or expense. For gas table lamps, there is a new floor baseboard connection which deserves mention, arid is constructed so that the gas cannot be turned on accidentally. It may also be applied within dining-room domes, af- fording great convenience in connecting gas chaf- ing dishes, percolators, toasters, etc., as shown op- posite page 79. Passing now from the living-room, we may skip the library, where the relations existing, between a local and general lighting together with decora- tive restrictions are such that the indirect method .best meets average conditions. 96 THE LIGHTING BOOK Now as to our dining-room, lighting here is greatly a matter of individual taste. Some like the conventional dome, others detest it and prefer candelabra on the table. Obviously no hard and fast rules regarding decoration can be laid down. Neither can lighting be universally prescribed so far as fixture design is concerned. If domes are used, by all means utilize your light so that none is wasted, as I have explained. Sometimes the side wall is selected as a desirable location for lamps, but unless they are very much subdued the effect is invariably bad. The photograph facing page 84 shows this point. The lights above the buffet produce a spotty effect against the side wall, which is neither decorative or useful. By cover- ing the tops of the shades, and placing paper screens on the inside half-sections of shade next the wall, this condition can be corrected. Never expect lights so placed to do more than harmonize and assist in decorative expression. Bedroom lighting also involves local and general systems. So far as the dresser is concerned, gen- eral lighting obviates the necessity for the local wall lights. (Op. page 85.) The small portable lamp is decidedly a convenience. In the bedroom facing page 90 the illumination is not general enough to meet local requirements. A group of lighting effects which may be adopted to or- dinary conditions. Here the light emphasizes the artdstic quality of the landscape and blends in with the artist's color. Illuminated vases of soft color bring out interesting quali- ties of a Maxfield Parrish painting. "^ ^ rt fM tH o 3 t> o |ig ^ U > 1> rf k^ ■L- "C u o ^ — s LIGHT IN THE HOME 97 A modern type of gas fixture is shown, but the glassware represented is of the kind to be avoided, resembling too closely the commercial types of white opal, which have become almost as common- place and obnoxious as prismatic glass. Before ending our impromptu visit, let us speak of the kitchen light. The arrangement opposite page 91 is to be avoided. The single light casts shadows, and prevents those standing before the range and sink from getting sufficient light on their work. It is desirable to have one light source meet all the requirements of general and local working conditions, but this can only be ac- complished by indirect lighting. When the entire ceiling of the kitchen becomes a redirecting sur- face, it is possible for a person standing opposite the gas range to see inside ovens with glass doors to the very back of the oven. XII LIGHT AND DECORATION "Conje forth into the, light of things Let Nature be your teacher." AND now to turn from things utilitarian, let us consider the possibilities of light — recon- ciled with decoration in making the home attrac- tive. It is not enough that light should serve only as a means of lighting our difficulties — solving the problem of more or less light here and there. General light and local lighting, however grace- fully executed, still have something to he desired, something which even the most unpretentious home connot afford to be without. Because beau- tiful Italian alabaster bowls, and urns, and pedes- tals, rendered in hand-carved woods, and exquisite marbles are expensive, one should not feel that the pleasure of expressing individuality in light- ing is denied him. These effects can all be approximated with cheap, good looking sub- stitutes — graceful sconces and wall brackets in plaster, pedestals and urns in composition, or ordi- 98 LIGHT AND DECORATION 99 nary plaster (treated), glassware in the form of bowls and vases made in this country, which al- most defy detection when compared with the genuine hand carved alabaster. Those who have the natural artistic perception of the decorator— a quality which might be natural but can never be gracefully acquired or cultivated by the unimagi- native, though women possess this gift to a degree superlative — can put together a conglomerate mass of miscellaneous material and express some- thing which is really attractive, artistic and beau- tiful. All lighting, whether decorative or utili- tarian, must meet physiological requirements. The lighting fixture which is glaring and hurts the eye can never be termed artistic, or even usct ful. On the contrary, light and decoration prop- erly combined always satisfy the physiological necessities of eye comfort if not eye utility. Let us see how light can be used to appeal to the imagination and create an atmosphere replete with charm and mystery. The photograph facing page 96 shows a recon- ciliation of light and decoration. It is to be re- gretted that the camera does not reveal in this case the color contrasts, which are a verita- ble treat to the eye. The small art lamp beside the piano consists of a plaster column and capital loo THE LIGHTING BOOK worth 50 cents. Through a centrally drilled hole wires lead from the base to an electric socket atop the column and within the glass dome, which is of mottled glass, old rose in tone, with suggestions of lighter and darker color modulations, all blend- ing charmingly. Such a shade may be obtained for less than one dollar, with its holder, which fits over the socket, within which is an attachment for obtaining various degrees of light. The small round bulb tungsten lamp is so high up within the shade that it is invisible to persons seated in the room or at the piano. A piece of amber gelatine film held together in cylindrical form by two ordinary wire paper fasteners, com- pletes the color modification, and the lamp is sup- ported by a plaster capital finished in water colors to harmonize unobtrusively with the dark green wall. Against this practically neutral background (at night) this graceful lamp with its shade of old rose is just bright enough to emphasize its value as a decorative symbol. A touch of a switch and the music page becomes bright without spoil- ing the effect. The features of a soloist standing by the accompanist, facing the occupants of the room, are suflfused with a rosy and becoming flush, relieving even an unnatural pallor. Another decorative treatment of piano lights (frontispiece) LIGHT AND DECORATION loi is the use of candlesticks with appropriate silk shades. These must not be over lighted. Too bright lights in decorative shades destroy their pictorial effect, and annoy the eye. Within the shade of the side lamp — again on page 96 — an opaque screen of asbestos placed close to the lamp prevents the splotch of wall light (as typically shown facing page 84) . The small pic- ture artistically placed below the lamp is lighted with a dull red glow, produced by a small "V" shaped section of red gelatine film placed within the shade directly above. Thus the "Fall of Baby- lon" suggests to the mind, by the psychological in- fluence of red light, that vibrant sense of impend- ing disaster which is the predominant theme in this wonderful painting. Above this small pic- ture is a water color reproduction of Burne-Jones' famous work "The Awakening of Galatea," and, suspended from the jaws of a gargoyle by antique chains hangs a plaster replica of an old Egyptian urn. Within, a lamp placed in a small silver coated reflector covered with scarlet gelatine film casts a rosy glow upwards, which in turn is re- diffused downwards by the ceiling, conveying with just sufficient emphasis the flesh tints betokening the awakened life of the beautiful Galatea. The lower portion of the body receives just a touch of I02 THE LIGHTING BOOK white light from a slit in the side of the urn, enough to mark the gradation twixt marble and flesh. Below, the figure of the sculptor Pygmalion, kneeling reverently at the base of-his masterpiece, is barely revealed beneath impressive shadows. Thus, the interpretation of the artist is enhanced and the theme of this legend of ancient Greece embellished by light and decoration combined. From any viewpoint in the room the effect is equally perfect, there being no glaring reflection from the picture-glass, so characteristic of all our art gallery lighting. Above the piano is a small cabinet, serving to support a transparency invisible by day but at night revealing two little owls upon a tree branch sharply silhouetted against the full moon. These transparencies are called Spookie Shades and may be obtained in a wide variety of designs — they are most inexpensive. The player at the piano by the touch of a switch may diminish or increase the quantity of light on his music without destroying the pictorial effect by a burst of light— the music page alone being brightened. In other parts of the room light has been directed upon a picture or even shines through the canvas of a work in oils by small lamps placed against white asbestos grounds, or in small home made reflectors of as- A reconciliation of light and decoration. Here touches of light are used artistically in co-opera,tion with the fixed articles of decoration. Even the spirit of the pictures is interpreted by light. An ingenious treatment of a narrow Iiall to overcome the usual canon-like effect. The walls are subdued and a pale green-blue light cast through lattice counterfeits moonlight. LIGHT AND DECORATION 103 bestos concealed beneath architectural projections. Thus where an object is to be emphasized or its effect heightened — light may be used to bring out its beauty. In these decorative touches of light, the small electric lamps offer a ready means of attaining many pleasing effects. Perhaps the best way is to use what is known as a transformer, which cuts down the^ regular commercial voltage supplied at one hundred and ten volts to six or eight volts. This voltage involves no fire risk, consequently small silk-covered wires of the same color as the wall paper can be readily concealed and distributed without difficulty or expense. When the main switch is open, no electricity can pass through the transformer, and the lighting of the small lamps, of course, denotes that the switch is closed — hence they constitute their own danger signal. In con- cealing these small bulbs within vases, to give life to a sprig of blossoms therein, small reflectors of white asbestos, funnel-shaped, may be easily made. Be sure that the light radiating portion of the lamp lies well within the reflector, else its redirect- ing powers will be nil. A touch of light on the dial of an old clock, the beautifying of a picture, as described in previous pictures — the glow of an open hearth, and other and innumerable touches I04 THE LIGHTING BOOK of light — used as an artist would apply his brush to a painting — are only limited by the imagination and artistic perception of the individual, which is measured, incidentally, by the finished appearance of his work. It is to be regretted that electric 'illuminants may not be so conveniently regulated as gas. The satis- faction of turning a lamp up, or down, gradually, in perfect harmony with one's various wishes, is very great. True, there is an electrical attach- ment on the market which accomplishes this in a way, but the various gradations are too abruptly marked, and its application is limited. To those who appreciate the ability to control electric light in the home with the same facility as gas, the use of "dimmers" such as are used in producing theatrical effects, are recommended. These are obtainable in various sizes, and may be placed on the wall near the point of control or switch. Very often they may be concealed at the side of a piano or behind a large picture frame. They consist of a resistance wire imbedded in fire-proof material and contact with the wall is prevented by project- ing arms, which serve to hold them in place. Any intelligent electrician will know how to install them in accordance with the regulations of the Board of Fire Underwriters. LIGHT AND DECORATION 105 On a bookcase (page 97) a simple candlestick with its shade of pink silk delicately illumines the face of an old French clock, and brings out the rich brown tints of the old wood, while at its base the lines of a bronze are suggestively relieved by silhouette. Oftentimes the pink silk candle shade which one buys (under daylight conditions) because of its desirable color for a certain contrast background, when placed in position over its miniature lamp, and viewed by transmitted rays of artificial light, with chameleon-like perversity turns white! Hence this little silk shade, which by day blends so charmingly and inauspiciously by contrast with its decorative surroundings, by night becomes of- fensively predominant, detracting from the beauty of the ensemble. The use of this gelatine film, available in all colors, enables one to obtain as agreeable an effect at night as by day — without impairing the appear- ance of the shade so treated under daylight con- ditions. Another wonderful effect is inexpensively pro- duced by diffusing a soft light through a panel- skylight of stained glass set in the ceiling of a bay- window embrasure. The light shining down upon a fern is like the glow of sunset (page io6 THE LIGHTING BOOK 52). This involves a simple w^ood framework with panels of diffusing glass. Two 40 watt tung- sten lamps attached to the ceiling in silver covered reflectors direct light downward through the glass — a pull socket with the pendant chain concealed behind the portieres affords a reliable means of control. The front of this skylight may be masked by a false wall or border, extending above the molding line. This may be formed of tarred paper, painted over, and can be used as an effect- ive situation for art plaster relief work in flat panel format (facing page 97) . Behind in a lamp box, a transparency depicting an impressionistic scene, gives the suggestion of an extensive perspec- tive through the Moorish arches — a touch of real- ism in light and decoration made possible by the economy and durability of small tungsten lamps. Opposite page 102 is pictured light used as an ar- tist does his brush in delicately emphasizing de- tails. Below a landscape in water color a candle- stick with a pink silk shade softly reveals the pic- ture, the pink flowers in the foreground seeming to be a part of the shade. This same floral motive is further emphasized by a sprig of blossoms in a tall urn at the right, within which just enough light escapes upwards to give a touch of life here and there to the drooping branches with their LIGHT AND DECORATION 107 pretty blossoms. To the left, seated upon an an- tique jar, a Billiken is revealed in a ruddy glow, warming his toes and grinning amiably the while. The strong directional light from below gives the requisite degree of shadow contrast necessary to properly convey his grotesque expression. The silk shade allows enough light to pass below barely to reveal a delicate bronze and an exquisite sample of cloisonne ware. Beneath the shelf on which these rest, is a color reproduction of Maxfield Par- rish's "Old King Cole and his Court." Directly below the enthroned figure of the merry monarch, a light concealed in a small trophy cup illumines the king's countenance and the expression of rather forced gaiety of his court jesters — perpetually obligated to laugh at the king's jokes. At either side inexpensive urns of Parian marble, lighted by miniature lamps, cast a soft glow over the scene. Here is light used so that the eye is attracted and pleased. One never tires of looking at this pic- ture painted with light, because it has not violated in the slightest any physiological and aesthetic com- mandments. These effects, though shown in juxtaposition, are of course merely suggestive, their application suit- ing various situations not in combination. They are easily obtained, if one will only take the io8 THE LIGHTING BOOK trouble to try a few experiments, to be judged by the eye alone. The hall, too, can be relieved of its canon-like narrowness and height, so common to some houses. Opposite page 103 is an arrangement where the A Plan for the Treatment of a Narrow Hallway: i, Narrow Molding; z, Blue Gelatine Film; 3, Tubular Lamp; 4, Curved Reflector; 5, Supporting Moldings; 9, Urn and Pedestal with Light to Shine on Flowers (e) ; (a) Lamp; (b) Reflector; (c) Support usual, tiresomely conventional hat-rack and um- brella-stand are absent. From above a latticed ceiling streams a light like that of the moon, mak- ing it seem like a loggia open to the sky. The light brings out softly the outlines of an Italian urn, while above the entrance arch a globe of soft LIGHT AND DECORATION 109 golden hue is contrasted with what appears to be the blue sky overhead. The drawing on page 108 is a self-explanatory diagram showing how to obtain this effect, which may be infinitely varied to conform with local con- ditions and individual preferences. The improved economic state of modern illumi- nants has made possible these new uses of light. Unquestionably there will be still further improve- ment along economic lines. If these suggestions shall be the means of bringing home to any one a greater appreciation for those comforts and pleas- ures which artificial light has to bestow, and with such lavish prodigality, then has the mission of this book been accomplished.